Propaganda, Faith, and the Politics of Scapegoating

Ideas shape nations long before policies do. Sometimes they unite communities. Sometimes they divide them. Understanding how propaganda and scapegoating take root is the first step toward resisting them.

Historical Lessons from the Holocaust and What Scholars Watch for

Understanding how propaganda spreads and how societies become vulnerable to scapegoating is essential for protecting democratic institutions and public dialogue.

Throughout history, societies experiencing economic stress, political instability, or rapid cultural change have often turned to simplified explanations for complex problems. In some cases, these explanations take the form of conspiracy narratives that assign blame to minority groups. When such narratives are amplified through propaganda and reinforced by political power, they can produce devastating consequences.

An open doorway in Prague invites reflection. Across history, faith, ideas, and power have shaped how societies understand truth, identity, and one another. Sometimes the first step toward understanding begins simply by walking through the door and listening. Photo by: Anna Saladino

Across history, faith, ideas, and power have shaped how societies understand truth, identity, and one another. Sometimes the first step toward understanding begins simply by walking through the door and listening.

The Holocaust remains one of the most sobering examples of how propaganda, ideology, and social crisis can converge.

Between 1941 and 1945, Nazi Germany systematically murdered approximately six million Jews along with millions of other victims across Europe. Understanding how such atrocities became possible requires examining several interconnected forces: longstanding prejudice, propaganda, political instability, and the psychology of mass persuasion.

Today, historians and political scientists study these forces not to draw simplistic parallels with the present but to better understand how societies can become vulnerable to scapegoating and authoritarian narratives. Examining the mechanisms that enabled the rise of Nazi antisemitism provides valuable insight into how propaganda functions and why democratic societies must remain vigilant.

Historical Roots of Antisemitic Conspiracy Narratives

Adolf Hitler did not invent antisemitism. Anti-Jewish prejudice existed in parts of Europe for centuries, often rooted in religious tensions between Christian majorities and Jewish minorities. During the medieval period, Jewish communities were frequently restricted from owning land or joining many professions. As a result, some became concentrated in occupations such as trade and moneylending.

Over time, these economic roles were distorted into stereotypes portraying Jews as controlling finance or manipulating political systems. By the nineteenth century, these religious prejudices increasingly merged with racial theories claiming that Jews constituted a dangerous and inferior “race” rather than simply a religious community (Lipstadt 2019).

These conspiracy narratives circulated widely in Europe by the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. One of the most infamous examples was the fabricated document known as the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, which falsely claimed that Jewish leaders were plotting global domination. Although repeatedly proven to be a forgery, the document spread widely and influenced antisemitic propaganda throughout Europe and beyond (Herf 2006).

Hitler encountered many of these ideas during his early years in Vienna and Munich. In Mein Kampf, he repeated long-standing conspiracy narratives that portrayed Jews as responsible for Germany’s political instability and economic hardship (Hitler 1925). Historians emphasize that these claims were not based on evidence but were politically useful in mobilizing resentment.

Why Jews Became the Central Target of Nazi Ideology

Although Nazi ideology targeted several groups, antisemitism occupied a uniquely central position within its worldview. Nazi racial theory claimed that humanity was divided into hierarchical races, with the so-called “Aryan race” at the top.

Other groups persecuted under Nazi rule included Roma communities, Slavic populations, disabled individuals, political dissidents, and LGBTQ citizens. However, Jews were portrayed not simply as inferior but as an existential threat responsible for political and economic upheaval across the world (Kershaw 2008).

Nazi propaganda depicted Jews as the hidden force behind both capitalism and communism, an illogical but powerful conspiracy narrative that allowed the regime to blame Jews for nearly every social problem facing Germany.

These narratives gained traction in a nation struggling with the consequences of World War I. Germany’s defeat in 1918 and the harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles produced political instability and economic turmoil. Hyperinflation in the early 1920s and mass unemployment during the Great Depression intensified public frustration.

Right-wing nationalist movements promoted the so-called “stab-in-the-back” myth, which falsely claimed that Germany had not been militarily defeated but had instead been betrayed internally by political opponents. Jews were frequently blamed within this narrative (Evans 2005).

The Psychology of Propaganda

Propaganda succeeds not simply because people believe false information but because it appeals to powerful psychological tendencies. Scholars studying propaganda identify several mechanisms that make such messaging effective.

One important factor is repetition. When individuals encounter the same claim repeatedly from multiple sources, it becomes increasingly familiar and therefore more likely to be perceived as true. Psychologists refer to this phenomenon as the “illusory truth effect.”

Propaganda also works by simplifying complex social problems. Instead of acknowledging structural economic challenges or political failures, propaganda narratives identify a single group as responsible for society’s hardships. This dynamic can transform frustration into hostility directed toward an identifiable target.

Another key element is emotional appeal. Fear, humiliation, and resentment are powerful motivators. Nazi propaganda frequently portrayed Jews as dangerous outsiders who threatened German culture and security. By framing discrimination as self-defense, propaganda can normalize policies that might otherwise appear morally unacceptable.

Finally, propaganda often relies on social conformity. When individuals believe that most people around them accept a certain narrative, they may hesitate to question it publicly even if they harbor doubts. Over time, this dynamic can produce the illusion of widespread agreement.

Media and Propaganda Before the Internet

Modern observers sometimes assume that propaganda is primarily a product of digital media. However, the Nazi regime demonstrated how effective propaganda could be long before the internet.

Under Joseph Goebbels, the Ministry of Propaganda controlled newspapers, radio broadcasts, films, and public messaging throughout Germany. Cheap radios known as the Volksempfänger were distributed widely so that Hitler’s speeches could reach millions of households.

Print media also played a central role. Newspapers such as Der Stürmer published antisemitic caricatures and conspiracy narratives designed to dehumanize Jewish communities. Films, public rallies, school textbooks, and youth organizations reinforced these messages across public life (Herf 2006).

By controlling multiple communication channels simultaneously, the regime created an environment in which dissenting perspectives became increasingly difficult to access.

Why Societies Can Follow Authoritarian Leaders

Another question frequently asked by historians is why more people did not resist Nazi policies earlier.

Authoritarian systems rarely appear overnight. After gaining power in 1933, the Nazi regime rapidly dismantled democratic institutions. Political opposition parties were banned, independent media was suppressed, and the secret police monitored potential dissent.

Fear played a significant role. Public criticism of the regime could result in imprisonment or execution. Under these conditions, many individuals remained silent even if they privately disagreed with Nazi policies.

Political scientists note that authoritarian systems often advance through gradual normalization rather than sudden transformation. Each incremental step may appear manageable on its own, but together they can fundamentally reshape a society’s moral boundaries.

Modern Warning Signs Scholars Monitor

Scholars studying authoritarianism and genocide frequently emphasize that mass violence rarely emerges without warning. Instead, certain patterns tend to appear earlier in the political environment.

These warning signs include:

• scapegoating of minority groups during periods of social stress • conspiracy narratives portraying minorities as secret enemies • propaganda that dehumanizes targeted populations • erosion of democratic institutions and independent media • normalization of political violence or intimidation Organizations such as the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum highlight these patterns as early indicators that societies should monitor carefully.

Importantly, these warning signs are not limited to any single country or political ideology. They can emerge in many different contexts when societies experience polarization, economic anxiety, or political instability.

Contemporary Hate Crime Trends

Recent data suggest that prejudice against multiple religious and ethnic groups has increased in the United States in recent years.

The Anti-Defamation League reported more than nine thousand antisemitic incidents in the United States in 2024, the highest number recorded since the organization began tracking such incidents decades ago (Anti-Defamation League 2025).

At the same time, anti-Muslim discrimination has also increased. The Council on American-Islamic Relations documented thousands of reported incidents involving harassment, discrimination, and threats in recent years (Council on American-Islamic Relations 2025).

Importantly, similar patterns appear in government data as well. The Federal Bureau of Investigation’s Hate Crime Statistics program records rising numbers of religiously motivated hate crimes targeting both Jewish and Muslim communities (Federal Bureau of Investigation 2024).

Survey research from the Pew Research Center also indicates that significant numbers of Americans believe both Jews and Muslims face substantial discrimination within the United States (Pew Research Center 2024).

Taken together, these findings illustrate that prejudice can emerge in multiple directions simultaneously, particularly in highly polarized social environments.

Propaganda in the Digital Age

While propaganda in the twentieth century relied on newspapers, radio broadcasts, films, and mass rallies, the digital age has transformed how information spreads through societies. Social media platforms, video networks, and algorithm-driven news feeds allow narratives to travel across the globe within minutes.

Researchers studying online information systems note that emotionally charged content spreads faster than neutral information because it generates higher engagement. Messages that evoke anger, fear, or outrage are more likely to be shared widely across social networks (Vosoughi, Roy, and Aral 2018).

Algorithmic recommendation systems can also create information silos in which individuals primarily encounter content that reinforces their existing beliefs. Over time, these environments can intensify polarization and make misinformation more difficult to challenge (Sunstein 2017).

Although digital technology has transformed the speed of communication, the psychological mechanisms underlying propaganda remain remarkably consistent. Appeals to fear, identity, and group loyalty continue to shape how audiences interpret political narratives.

Recognizing Propaganda in Everyday Media

Because propaganda relies on recognizable psychological patterns, individuals can learn to identify warning signs in modern media environments.

Several common characteristics appear repeatedly in propaganda campaigns:

First, propaganda often portrays social problems as the result of a single villain or group rather than complex structural causes. This simplification makes emotionally satisfying narratives easier to spread.

Second, propaganda frequently uses dehumanizing language that depicts opponents as threats rather than as fellow citizens or human beings.

Third, conspiracy narratives often claim that hidden elites secretly control major institutions. These claims typically rely on vague evidence and encourage distrust of all sources of information except the conspiracy itself.

Finally, propaganda discourages critical thinking by framing disagreement as betrayal. When questioning a narrative is treated as disloyalty, open debate becomes increasingly difficult.

Recognizing these patterns does not require cynicism toward all political communication. Instead, it encourages citizens to evaluate information carefully and remain attentive to how narratives shape public perception.

Lessons from History

The Holocaust demonstrates how dangerous conspiracy narratives and scapegoating can become when combined with propaganda and political power. The process did not begin with extermination camps. It began with ideas, words, and narratives that portrayed certain groups as threats to the nation.

Modern scholars stress that understanding these mechanisms is essential not because history inevitably repeats itself, but because recognizing the early stages of exclusion and dehumanization can help societies prevent escalation.

History reminds us that democratic institutions require constant care. Propaganda thrives where critical thinking weakens, and conspiracy narratives flourish where complex problems are reduced to simple villains.

Recognizing these dynamics does not mean assuming that the past will repeat itself. It means acknowledging that the forces which shaped history remain present in human societies.

Community Round Table Questions

Sacred Earth Journey was created around the belief that meaningful conversations across cultures can deepen understanding and bring people closer together. The goal of these questions is not to debate or persuade, but to encourage thoughtful reflection and respectful dialogue.

Consider gathering with friends, family, or colleagues and exploring questions such as these:

1. How do conspiracy narratives take root in societies during times of uncertainty or crisis?What social or emotional needs might these narratives fulfill for individuals or communities?

2. What role does media play in shaping our understanding of complex global events?

How can individuals distinguish between credible information, propaganda, and emotionally persuasive messaging?

3. Throughout history, many societies have turned to scapegoating during periods of economic or political instability.

Why do you think this pattern appears so frequently across different cultures and time periods?

4. What responsibility do citizens, educators, and journalists share in challenging misinformation and promoting critical thinking?

5. In an age of rapidly spreading digital information, what practices might help communities maintain healthy and respectful public dialogue?

6. Looking at history, what lessons might modern societies draw about the importance of protecting democratic institutions and minority rights?

These questions are offered in the spirit of Sacred Earth Journey’s guiding philosophy:

Where we Travel the World Unfiltered, Where Strangers Become Tribe, and Global Peace Begins at Kitchen Tables

Sometimes the most meaningful progress begins not with grand political declarations, but with honest conversations among ordinary people willing to listen carefully to one another.

A Closing Reflection

“The ideal subject of totalitarian rule is not the convinced Nazi or the convinced Communist, but people for whom the distinction between fact and fiction no longer exists.” — Hannah Arendt

Reference List

Anti-Defamation League. 2025. Audit of Antisemitic Incidents 2024.

Council on American-Islamic Relations. 2025. Civil Rights Report.

Douglas, Karen M., Robbie Sutton, and Aleksandra Cichocka. 2019. “The Psychology of Conspiracy Theories.” Current Directions in Psychological Science 28 (6): 538–542.

Evans, Richard J. 2005. The Third Reich in Power. New York: Penguin.

Federal Bureau of Investigation. 2024. Hate Crime Statistics.

Herf, Jeffrey. 2006. The Jewish Enemy: Nazi Propaganda during World War II and the Holocaust. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Hitler, Adolf. 1925. Mein Kampf. Munich.

Kershaw, Ian. 2008. Hitler: A Biography. New York: W. W. Norton.

Lipstadt, Deborah. 2019. Antisemitism: Here and Now. New York: Schocken Books.

Pew Research Center. 2024. Views of Religious Discrimination in the United States.

Sunstein, Cass R. 2017. #Republic: Divided Democracy in the Age of Social Media. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. 2018. “The Spread of True and False News Online.” Science 359 (6380): 1146–1151.

United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. 2023. Holocaust Encyclopedia.